GENERAL HERACLIUS THE ELDER

Prof. John Karkazis

Professor Emeritus, University of the Aegean at Chios, Greece

President, Constantine Porphyrogenetus International Association (CP)

Dr. Ioannis Vidakis

Director, Center of Defense, Energy and Geopolitical Research (CEDEG)

Heraclius the Elder (H.E.) was a Roman general, Exarch of Carthage and father of emperor Heraclius. The exact year of his birth is not known. Most probably he was born in 550’s and he died circa 611. There is a controversy over the origin of H.E. Kaegy [1] argues that the question of H.E.’s origin is important for the determination of the heritage and the context in which both Heraclii (the elder and his son, the emperor) grew up and developed. The origin of H.E. according to the three prevailing theories was Armenian, Syrian and Iranian. Roman historian Theophylact of Simocatta [2] considered him as a native of Roman Armenia, with Kaegi sharing this view. On the other hand Mango [3] supports the theory that the origin of H.E. was Syrian, being a descendant of Heraclius of Edessa, a Roman general who participated in the campaigns against the Vandals in the middle of 5th century. The theory of the Iranian origin of H.E. was suggested by the Armenian historian Sebeos [4] in 7th century. Sebeos considered that H.E. was a descendant of the Iranian Arsacid’s family that ruled over Armenia during the period 2-428. This theory was also supported by Vasiliev [5], the foremost authority of Byzantine history.

Kaegi [1] notes that H.E.’s service had been in or near landlocked areas (Arzarene and northern Mesopotamia) mainly inhabited by Armenians. None of these areas had ever been heavily Hellenized or Romanized in terms of language, culture or physical monuments. These areas were also accommodating a diversity of ethnic groups.

Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia, the areas H.E. was acting as a military commander (second in command to Magister Militum per Orientem) for 15 years, were characterized by severe winters and summers, lack of adequate road systems, by non-navigable rivers (such as Tigris and its tributaries) and by lands producing limited food supplies needed in military campaigns. The above conditions imposed enormous difficulties in the organization of the logistical support of the Roman Army units mainly of its infantry divisions. In view of the above conditions the strategy of Romans and in particular of H.E. was to pay special attention to the extensive use of cavalry and, due to the difficulties in logistical support, to raiding operations deep inside enemy territories.  Note also that the headquarters of the Roman Army were in the highly fortified city of Theodosioupolis, the modern Erzurum in northeastern Turkey. Besides his military skills H.E. was also characterized by diplomatic skills having a deep knowledge and understanding of the Persian and Armenian way of thinking and of battle tactics.

 H.E. was one of the most brilliant generals of the Eastern Roman Empire, taking part in many wars against the Persians in the regions of Mesopotamia and Persarmenia. He was a fearless officer, an excellent tracker and he had created a remarkable system of espionage and intelligence in the eastern front. A characteristic example of his military abilities was a risky reconnaissance operation in which the Heraclius, commanding of a group of 20 soldiers, made a deep penetration in the enemy area (in the region of Amida) locating in time the incoming troops of Khosrow and passing this information to the Emperor Theodosius. This information saved the Roman expeditionary force from a certain catastrophe Heraclius the Elder was also a great tactician during the battle and a follower of the unorthodox war. In particular, having excellent knowledge of the ground and of the enemy (and through his spy network) he chose in many cases (as in the battles of Solachon and Nineveh) the flexible and deceiptful retreat of his troops in order to act from a more suitable ground and to trap or cut off enemy troops from their supply lines. Heraclius the Elder was particularly skilled in sudden raids. Specifically, in the 580s, when his expeditionary force was based in Theodosioupolis (present-day Erzurum), he distinguished himself in the development of commando techniques and training of commando units. He organized successful commando operations at great depth in the Persian territory, destroying infrastructure and military resupply units. Finally, he distinguished himself in diplomacy and naval operations during his tenure at the beginning of the 7th century as governor of the Exarchate of Africa. The Exarchate of Africa had its own fleet, based at the naval base of Carthage, to deal with the savage invasions of the Berbers and Visigoths. It also had rudimentary diplomatic services to deal with relevant issues in a timely manner as communication with Constantinople was particularly time consuming and in many cases difficult.

A timeline of Heraclius the Elder’s campaigns in Arzarene and northern Mesopotamia.

Roman – Persian Wars: 572 – 591 (20 years)

Emperor Maurice Reign:  582 – 602 (20 years)

Year 582

– Accession of emperor Maurice

– General John Mystacon, a native Thracian, is appointed by Maurice military commander of the Eastern Roman Army (Magister Militum per Orientem) operating in a large area extending from the southwestern parts of the Kingdom of Armenia to northern Mesopotamia.

– Defeat of the Roman Army under general Mystacon by a Persian army under general Kardarigan in a battle near the junction of the rivers Nymphius and Tigris (near the modern city of Batman, Turkey). The defeat was probably due to disputes inside Roman Army.

Campaigns of  H.E. in his capacity as the second in command of the Roman Army: 583 – 590

During the period Philippicus was the military commander of the Roman Army, H.E. was second in command but he was practically the chief commanding officer due to chronic health problems of Philippicus. H.E. also served under the orders of Priscus, Comontiolus and Narses, commanders of the Roman Army during the late phase of the wars with the Persians. The main orders for H.E. were to subdue an Armenian revolt and to campaign against the Persians in northern Mesopotamia.

Year  583

– Unsuccessful siege of the fortress of Acbas by the army of general Mystacon.

– Following the above failures general Mystacon was replaced by the general

Philippicus, husband of emperor Maurice’s sister Gordia.

Year  584

– Campaign of Philippicus in Arzarene, in the southwestern part of the Kingdom of Armenia, which was under the Persian authority. Arzarene was a strategic location rich in ores with iron and lead mines, grape cultivation and famous for its wines. The campaigns in Arzarene lasted for seven years until 591 when it was annexed by Eeastern Roman Empire. When the Romans conquered Arzazene they destroyed its capital Triganakert and renamed the city Martyropolis (the city of the martyrs). Martyropolis was located near the modern city of Silvan, in southeastern Turkey, in the province of Diyarbakir.

– Capture by Philippicus army of the fortress of Acbas.

– The Persians asked for negotiations and the Romans responded by sending an embassy to Persia.

Year 585

Philippicus ravages the region of Arvastan, a strategic location on the Silk Road, extending from Nisibis northwest to Nineveh southeast, in northern Mesopotamia.

Year 586

– Victory of the Roman Army under Philippicus in the Battle of Solachon (northern Mesopotamia) against the Persians. Solachon was a fortress city near the borders of Eastern Roman with the Persian (Sassanid) Empire located in the modern province of Mardin (near the borders of Turkey with Syria). According to Haldon [6], a British historian, the Battle of Solachon was representative of the combative qualities of the Roman Army when it campaigned under competent commanders. Indeed, in this battle the Romans engaged exclusively very competent cavalry units against a much larger Persian army. These units consisted of lancers, horse-archers and cataphracts, including Hun mercenaries and Arab troops. Philippicus and H.E. were the commanders of the Roman Army and Kardarigan of the Persian Army.

– Following their defeat in Solachon the Persians renewed peace talks with the Romans.

– Roman Army besieges the fortress of Chlomaron, located in the modern province of Diyarbakir, but it retreats following a Persian counter-attack.

Years 587 – 590

– H.E. campaigns down the Tigris River and captures several Persian fortresses.

– As a result of his health problems Philippicus was replaced by general Priscus, an unpopular commander with arrogant manners, who fuelled a mutiny in the Roman Army lasted for over a year. To check the mutiny the emperor Maurice re-appointed temporarily Philippicus in the command of the Roman Army.

– Roman victory, in 588, against the Persians at the battle of Martyropolis in southwest Armenia.

– Replacement, in 589, of Philippicus by general Comontiolus, of Thracian origin, with orders to check a rebellion of Bahram Chobin against the Persian King Khosrow II, by joining forces with the latter. Comontiolus failed in his mission and he was replaced by general Narses a highly experienced officer of Armenian origin.

Year 595

Campaigns of H.E. in the wider region of Arzarene to suppress an Armenian revolt^. H.E. is mentioned in the History of Sebeos (circa 595) as Magister Militum per Armeniam, replacing John Mystacon, with orders to suppress an Armenia revolution led by Vahewani and Khorkhoruni. As Kaegi [1] notes, Heraclius service in Armenia was brief but gave him the opportunity to reinforce his ties with the country. Note also that H.E. retained valuable military and political connections with Armenia and during his brief campaigns there he was assisted by members of the Mamikonian dynasty, a dominant political power in the Kingdom of Armenia for four centuries, 4th to 8th century.

Service of Heraclius the Elder as Exarch of Africa: circa 600 – 608

The Exarchate of Africa, with its capital Carthage located at the center of North Africa’s coastline (in the present Tunisia), was one of the two major administrative units of the Eastern Roman Empire, the other being the Exarchate of Ravenna. The Exarchate of Africa was established by the emperor Maurice at the end of 6th century and survived until the end of 7th century when it was conquered by the Muslims of the Maghreb. The Exarch of Africa was combining the political authority of the praetorian prefect with the military authority of the magister militum. These two authorities were offering their holders extensive autonomy from Constantinople. The Exarchate of Africa was the great granary of the Empire supplying its capital, almost exclusively, with valuable foodstuff and other important products.

Appointment of H.E. (circa 600) by the emperor Maurice as Patrician and Exarch of Africa (or Carthage) replacing Innocentius.

H.E. served as Exarch of Africa for approximately 8 years, circa 600 – 608. The appointment of Heraclius to this strategic post, offering to their holders almost absolute power that might impose a threat to the Roman emperor, suggests that H.E. enjoyed the trust of emperor Maurice and his inner circle, a trust extending to other members of the royal family such as Philippicus, the brother-in-law of the emperor and also to Priscus, a prominent general (H.E. served under his command in the eastern front) holding the supreme honorary rank of patrikios.

References

[1] Kaegi, W.E. (2003). Heraclius. Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge UniversityPress

[2] Whitby, Michael and Whitby, Mary (1986). The History of Theofylact Simocatta, Claredon Press

[3] Mango, C. ed. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford University Press

[4] Sebeos History. A History of Heraclius (chapter 29): attributed to Sebeos, the Armenian bishop and historian, Translation from Classical Armenian by Robert Bedrosian (2008)

[5] Vasiliev, A. (1958). History of the Byzantine Empire Vol. 1 (english translation),   University of Wisconsin Press

[6] Haldon, J. (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century. The transformation of a culture, Cambridge